Write a note about the main charactaristics of the Romantic poetry.

The age of Romanticism is considered to be the most remarkable age in the history of English literature within fifty years after the death of Dr. Johnson. English poetry was once again magnificently driven by the brilliant outbust of the imaginative genius. The rise of Romanticism needs to be seen in the context of the changes that marked the historical and philosophical aspects of the English social life. It must be noted that the period between 1776 and 1832 was one of the remarkable progress and national achivements for England. Industrial development were growing day by day. In this age of industrial progress the Romantics rise with a view to making a balance between dehumanised men and women.

Romanticism has been described and defined in defferent ways. The word Romantic has been used traditionally in oppsition to the word classicism. Classicism is considerd and connected with the social, the formal, the intellectual and the static whereas Romanticism is connected and concerned with the individual, informal, the emotional and the dynamic. The Romantics believed in the absolute freedom both in terms of formal presentation and the content. Let us descus about the important feature of Romanticism.

Mystique of the past is another important feature for the Romantics. Keats’s  “Ode on a Grecian Urn”  is a fine example of how the ancient past inspired the poets.The past provided  all the romance and charm that the Romantic imagination needed.

Imagination is the soul of romantic poetry. The Romantics believed that imagination can give shelter to a troubled mind. This very idea has been reflecled throught the romantic poetry of different poets in this age. Through imagination the inanimate cold world is transformed into something real and living.While Cpleridge seeks to transform the given world through imagination. To Wordsworth visionary world is more real  than the world of sense. For Keats imagination which leads to beauty is not a simple way but a power by which he has made imagination more powerful and acceptable than reality. Keats in a letter to Benjamin Baily says:                                                                  “I am certain of nothing but of the

                    holiness of the Hearts affection and

                    truth to the imagination…”

Comman place and ordinary are the most significant characteristics of Romantic poetry. The Romantics had intention in the ordinary forms of life. The Romantics turned the full force of their humanitarianism upon the simple life of the peasant (farmar), secluded workers and innocent children who derived the sustenance of life from the luxerious profasion of nature ready to shelter and preserve them.  Particularly Wordsworth celebrated and sang the simplicity and common place of life. Wordsworth says,                         

…the earth , And commn face of Nature spoke to me

Rememberable things our simple childhood sits upon a thorn

That health more powerful than all elements.

Subjectivity is another important feature of the Romantic poets. Subjective poetry is a kind of poetry in which the poet goes into himself and finds his inspiration from his own experiences, thoughts and feelings. Most of the Romantic poets are subject in this sense. For example, Keats’s “Ode to the Nightingale” is basically based on personal matter. His life is full of tragedy. When his brother died he wrote this poem being annoyed with the practical world. So it is a subjective poem. Other  subjictive poems are  Keats’s “Ode to Fanny” and Wordsworth’s Tintern Abbey etc.

 Love of liberty is another important feature of the Romantic poets. They  expected both poetic and national liberty. In poetic liberty the poets wanted to write free hand poems. They didn’t want to be confined within the particular framework of poetry. Means rules and regulation were not inportant feature for them.They emphasized on the subject matter.In their writings the poets also showed a type of raction and revolt.

Use of nature is a prominent feature of the Romantic poets. They have frequently used nature in their poetry. But nature has taken different shape in different poets. To Shelley nature was a poewr. To Keats nature was a beauty and Wordsworh considered nature mystically. Coleridge treated nature supernaturally.

Frence Revolution and Romantic poetry are related to each other. The historical significance of the Frence Revolution of 1789 is destruction of the old order and initiated a new philosophy of liberty. One can measure its impact from the wide spread changes that took place in the whole of Europe including Englad. In the first of the revolution the English Romantic poets  saw the freedom for the mankind .Especially Shelley’s poem are full of a revolutionary zeal.

It is to be noted  that all the poets of the Romantic age were not influenced by the Frence Revolution because,the poems of Keats, Wordsworth, Coleridge are not related with Frence Revolution. The Romantic poets created an especial type of poetry that marked the age an humanity where subject matter was high and lofty because they were not confined with particular rules and regulation in writing poetry.

Why is Chaucer called the father of English poetry?

Chaucer symbolizes, as no other writer does, the Middle Ages. He stands in much the same relation to the life of his time as Alexander Pope does to the 18^th century and Tennyson to the Victorian era. Chaucer’s place in English literature is more important than theirs. For this he is the first great English writer.

According to John Dryden, Chaucer is the father of English poetry. Dryden venerates (honours) Chaucer as highly as the Greeks venerated Homer and Romans venerated Virgil. Dryden says that Chaucer is the perpetual foundation of good sense. He is learned in all subjects and speaks properly on all subjects.

Chaucer is regarded as the first great modern. He anticipated the modern taste and the modern mind. No other English writer has his skill and his large human outlook.

The first great national poet

Chaucer was the first great national poet. He expressed the new hopes and aspiration of the people of his times. The foundation of Chaucer’s art lies in English life and character.

Chaucer’s Narrative art

Chaucer stands successfully in his power of description. His description and narrative gifts possess rare qualities. In fact, he is the first great English story teller in verse. The employment of verse is Chaucer’s notable contribution. In his stories the narration is straight forward and unhampered. He introduces humor in his narration. “The Canterbury Tales” is a collection of narrated story. As a poet Chaucer’s greatness is strongly founded. The power of telling story is supremely well. He is one of the world’s three or four story tellers.

Art of Characterization

In English literature Chaucer is the first great painter of character. Next to Shakespeare, he is the greatest master of this field. He presents his character in a masterly manner. His characters are both individuals and types. In fact, Chaucer presents the 14^th century life as clearly as Tennyson.

Humor of Chaucer

He is regarded as the first great English humorist. No English literary work before him revealed (expressed) humor in the modern sense. Chaucer’s humor is always sympathetic. His understanding sympathy made him alive.  In fact, Chaucer’s humor is natural and spontaneous. After all, he was the poet of man and he had large humanity.

Realism of Chaucer

Modern poetry is characterized by realism. The modern poet is a keen observer of his times. Chaucer was a great observer of men and he had an extra ordinary insight into human nature.

His humanistic outlook

His descriptions of his fellow men reveals his wide humanity. His wide sympathy and gentle humanity make him lovable among the English poets. He is the poet of humanity.

Dramatic elements

Actually Chaucer is a dramatist. His characters are not dolls(puppets) but men and women of flesh and blood. His characters are full of vitality. His method of narration is dramatic. His characters talk in a dramatic manner.

Messenger of English novel

Chaucer has been called the father of English poetry. He is also the grandfather of English novel. In his “The Canterbury of Tales” we have the seeds of novel. It’s the fundamental characteristics of a novel.

At last we can say that he is the earliest of great moderns. He stands alone and no one climbs equally with him for two hundred years. English language and literature became full maturity with Chaucer. So he is the father of English poetry.

Discuss the role and function of Teiresias in the play “Antigone”.

The role and function of Teiresias is an exceptional creation in the plot of Sophocles’ drama. It was necessary for Sophocles to introduce Teiresias in “Antigone” as he was a part of the myth. As Greek tragedies are full of Gods, Goddess, divines and prophetic speeches, the introduction of Teiresias is essential to prove the drama as a perfect tragedy.

Teiresias was the blind prophet of Thebes. In Greek mythology he was known as a living oracle (divine) gifted with the power of prophecy. The conversation between Teiresias and Creon is very important for the construction of the plot. The scene shows Creon’s cruelty and his disregard towards the prophet or any religious belief. The audience feel horror (fear) at the prophecy and feel pity (kind) for Creon thinking. Though Teiresias is blind, he can see the truth. On the other hand, Creon can’t see the truth with his eyes. Teiresias says;                                 

                                                             “The time shall come,

And soon your house will be filled lamentation of men and women.”

Sophocles uses the legendary character of Teiresias with great advantages. The plot of the drama is such that it surely needs Teiresias. The prophet is highly respected personality in Thebes. His prophecy is gifted by one of the Gods, Apollo. But another God modified it that nobody will believe his prophecy. However, we can see that his prophecy becomes true at the end of the play, Antigone.

Conflict is the essence of any drama. The play “Antigone” is based on the conflict between patriotic and religious ideals. Creon stands for the patriotic ideal and Antigone stands for the religious ideal. Polynices, son of Oedipus, came to attack his own homeland and wanted to win the throne of Thebes. But Eteocles, another son of Oedipus, came to save the land. They killed each other in the battle. Eteocles is buried with state honour. On the other hand, the dead body of Polynices is forbidden to bury by Creon. Because,the king considers him as a traitor.

 In this sense, Creon is the most blameless nationalist. But Antigone defies (disobey) the order of the king because of two reasons. The first is her sisterly feelings and the second is her obedience to divine law. Meanwhile, we have understood that who is wrong or right. The prophet makes clear the wish of Gods and says that it is obligatory to bury the dead body. Here,the opinion of prophet is conflict between the king and the prophecy and it goes on the side of Antigone. This conflict is absolutely a dramatic point of the play. 

At first, Creon receives cordially the prophet and asks him what news he has brought. Then the prophet replies that he had brought some news and some advice for Creon. The king says that he has never failed to follow the advice of the prophet before. But after that the dialogue becomes serious and alarming. The prophet says that God’s command is to bury a dead body. So the dead body of Polynices should be buried and his blood is of none but Oedipus. The prophet says; 

Creon reacts angrily with the statement that goes against the order of the king. He says that the prophet is moved by his self-will. The old prophet feels very insulting and criticizes the king for his incapability to realize the advice. The king becomes more bitter in his remarks and warns the prophet not to forget that he is speaking in front the king. Then Teiresias reminds Creon that he is the king guided by the prophet.

Thus, Teresias is compelled to make the frightening prophecy. The prophet warns again the king that the death of his son will be the payment of the death of Antigone. Another death will happen due to the dead which is still lying unburied. Creon has no alter it. This is the outcome of Creon’s misdeeds. Teiresias says; 

“You shall have given a son of your own loins

To death, in payment for death – two to pay.”

It is very surprising for the audience that Creon defies the prophet who is an honourable person in the city. The king has no special consideration for the prophet. On the other hand, the prophet is failed to show the humanity.

At last, the impact of the prophet’s uttering resounds around the whole stage. The Chorus and Creon feel afraid of it. The king goes to undo his misdeeds giving honour to Polynices and spare Antigone. By this time, Antigone has already hanged herself, Haemon has stabbed himself and queen committed suicide. All these happened as a result of Creon’s misjudgment. The king realized his errors and wanted to heed the advice. But it was too late.

However, the character of Teiresias serves a dramatic purpose to the play. We could not realize the character of Creon if there was no activities of Teiresias. The prophet’s principle is to always speak the truth. He knows the truth. When the king gets angry, he doesn’t stop the speaking the truth

Write a note on the function of the Chorus in “Antigone”.

In Greek tragedy, the chorus is a grope of persons who speak, remark, sing or advise according to the demand of the plot. In most of the Greek tragedies we find the activities of the chorus. The chorus has its own tradition, philosophy and mode. History attests (certify) the fact that the chorus is a vital role in Greek tragedy. The role of the chorus changes from playwright to playwright.

The function of the chorus is to sing songs at appropriate intervals, commenting on the characters and the development of the plot. But it also participates in the dialogue and the action of the play. The choral song is the media of expressing emotion or moral of the audience. Sophocles makes use of chorus with great advantage. Let’s discuss the function of the chorus elaborately.

The chorus consists of twelve or fifteen ‘Elders’ of Thebes and sings about six songs. It doesn’t speak towards the audience but it presents the view point of faith of Thebes as a whole. It provides many necessary information for the audience.

The first song of the chorus serves the emotion of Thebes as a whole. It is highly a patriotic song as well as it reveals religious or moral significance. It criticizes the boast of man. It also refers to power of Almighty God.

The second song of the chorus is a glorification of man. Among the many wonder of earth the greatest is man. Man rides on the ocean and his way through the dangerous sea. He is the master of ageless earth. He can work hard and plough crops every year. He is the lord of all creatures of the earth. He is cunning to capture and dominate them with hand. He makes the use of language to converse. He finds the laws of living together. He makes the building to shelter himself from rain and wintry weather. Man has ability to be good or bad. The person is honorable who obeys the laws of God.

The third song of the chorus refers to the curse of Labdacus’ family which still continues to Antigone. Antigone, the last victimized member of the house is going to die for pride tounge. The law of Zeus is that human being is to suffer. Roving ambition rises men but it also brings downfall to many others. Thus, the choral songs remind the audience about the family tragedy of Labdacus. At the same time the chorus considers Antigone to be guilty. The chorus ends with the arrival of Haemon.

The subject of the fourth song is power and might of love. Love wings all battles and defeats all forces. Love can mislead one. It can cause a serious rift in the family. In this way, the chorus refers the talking of Creon and Haemon. Haemon comes to correct Creon of his misjudgment of Antigone. This song participates also Creon’s law.

The fifth song is sung after the lamentation of Antigone. It also refers to the same punishment of others. The song doesn’t bring about the consolation to Antigone but refers to the same example of human sufferings.

The last song of the chorus is an appeal to Dionysus. It describes that Dionysus has many names. He is the son of Zeus. In this song Chorus realizes that the city is polluted by the misdeed of the king. So, it wishes Dionysus to help the people of Thebes.

Antigone is a famous play of Sophocles. It is a tragic tale with a tragic ending. The chorus brings us a different story. It plays a very significant part of the play Antigone. First it relaxes the watcher or the reader from the suspense. Second, it teaches. Third, it tells some past characters in the play to know them better.

The chorus is not only the major part of Antigone but also the most insightful part of this play. The members of chorus tell Creon and the audience very important truths about themselves. The chorus talks about death, love and other forces. It shows the problems which we face throughout our life.

Through the chorus the king begins to see that he is wrong and God is superior to himself. This play also tells us a lot about humans in general that they are not interested in anything but the fulfillment of their own needs. And they refuse to see that something may be more powerful than themselves. This revealing is the main theme of the play.

This play could not exist without the chorus. The singers give too much to the structure of the play. The king changes greatly throughout the play, he starts as a best friend but latter in the play he becomes more and more ruthless. Without them Creon could never changed as a person. He also learns through them some important things about love, especially that is unconquerable.

This entire (full) play runs around the chorus, who gives insight to the characters. These actors provides the audience with knowledge about the human condition and entertain. Without their odes (songs) the play would have been incomplete